Switzerland History
Think Tanks
HISTORY
Switzerland
has existed as a state in its present form since the adoption of the
Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848. The precursors of Switzerland
established a defensive alliance at the end of the 13th century (1291),
forming a loose confederation of states which persisted for centuries.
Early history
Main articles: Early history of Switzerland and Switzerland in the Roman era
The
oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date back about
150,000 years.[35] The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland,
which were found at Gächlingen, have been dated to around 5300 BC.[35]
Founded
in 44 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus, Augusta Raurica (near Basel) was
the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most
important archaeological sites in Switzerland.[36]
The
earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the
Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, named after the archaeological site of
La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel. La Tène culture developed
and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC,[35] possibly
under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of
the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii.
Steadily harassed by the Germanic tribes, in 58 BC, the Helvetii decided
to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia, but Julius
Caesar's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte, in
today's eastern France, forcing the tribe to move back to its original
homeland.[35] In 15 BC, Tiberius, who would one day become the second
Roman emperor, and his brother Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating
them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii—the
namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica—first became part of
Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior
province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated
into the Roman province of Raetia. Sometime around the start of the
Common Era, the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called
Vindonissa, now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers,
near the town of Windisch, an outskirt of Brugg.
The
first and second century AD was an age of prosperity for the population
living on the Swiss plateau. Several towns, like Aventicum, Iulia
Equestris and Augusta Raurica, reached a remarkable size, while hundreds
of agricultural estates (Villae rusticae) were founded in the
countryside.
Around
260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine
transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire.
Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman
towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman
fortresses, like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire
built another line of defence at the north border (the so-called
Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes). Still, at the end of the fourth century, the
increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear
defence concept. The Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of
Germanic tribes.
In
the Early Middle Ages, from the end of the 4th century, the western
extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings
of the Burgundians. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th
century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century, forming
Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the
kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy.[35] The entire region became part
of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century, following Clovis
I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish
domination of the Burgundians.[37][38]
Throughout
the rest of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries, the Swiss regions continued
under Frankish hegemony (Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties). But
after its extension under Charlemagne, the Frankish Empire was divided
by the Treaty of Verdun in 843.[35] The territories of present-day
Switzerland became divided into Middle Francia and East Francia until
they were reunified under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD.[35]
By
1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy,
Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg.[35] Some regions (Uri, Schwyz,
Unterwalden, later known as Waldstätten) were accorded the Imperial
immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes.
With the extinction of its male line in 1263, the Kyburg dynasty fell in
AD 1264. The Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in
1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their
territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.[37]
Old Swiss Confederacy
Main article: Old Swiss Confederacy
Further information: Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy, Reformation in Switzerland, and Early Modern Switzerland
The
Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century
(light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colours shown are
the subject territories.
The
Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of
the central Alps. The Confederacy, governed by nobles and patricians of
various cantons, facilitated management of common interests and ensured
peace on the important mountain trade routes. The Federal Charter of
1291 agreed between the rural communes of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden
is considered the confederacy's founding document, even though similar
alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier.[39][40]
By
1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus
and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Bern city-states to form the ""Old
Confederacy"" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th
century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the
confederation.[40] By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the
territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura
mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of
Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during
the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory
in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in
1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman
Empire.[40] In 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen joined the Old Swiss
Confederacy.
The 1291 Bundesbrief (federal charter)
The
Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during
these earlier wars, but expansion of the confederation suffered a
setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This
ended the so-called ""heroic"" epoch of Swiss history.[40] The success
of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious
conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel). It was not until more than
one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the
Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognised Switzerland's
independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.[37][38]
During
the Early Modern period of Swiss history, the growing authoritarianism
of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake
of the Thirty Years' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653. In the
background to this struggle, the conflict between Catholic and
Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the First
War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of
Villmergen), in 1712.[40]
Napoleonic era
Main articles: Switzerland in the Napoleonic era, Helvetic Republic, and Act of Mediation
The Act of Mediation was Napoleon's attempt at a compromise between the Ancien Régime and a Republic.
In
1798, the revolutionary French government invaded Switzerland and
imposed a new unified constitution.[40] This centralised the government
of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen
joined France and the Valtellina valley became part of the Cisalpine
Republic, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the
Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. An invading foreign army had
imposed and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing
more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of
the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive
presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the
occupation.
When
war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian
forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside the
French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a
meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The
Act of Mediation was the result, which largely restored Swiss autonomy
and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons.[40] Henceforth, much of
Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of
self-rule with the need for a central government.
In
1815 the Congress of Vienna fully re-established Swiss independence,
and the European powers agreed to recognise Swiss neutrality
permanently.[37][38][40] Swiss troops still served foreign governments
until 1860 when they fought in the Siege of Gaeta. The treaty also
allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the
cantons of Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva. Switzerland's borders have not
changed since, except for some minor adjustments.[41]
Federal state
Main articles: Restoration and Regeneration (Switzerland) and Switzerland as a federal state
The
first Federal Palace in Bern (1857). One of the three cantons presiding
over the Tagsatzung (former legislative and executive council), Bern
was chosen as the permanent seat of federal legislative and executive
institutions in 1848, in part because of its closeness to the
French-speaking area.[1]
The
restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a
period of unrest with repeated violent clashes, such as the Züriputsch
of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg) broke out in 1847 when some
Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the
Sonderbund).[40] The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer
than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire. Yet
however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European
riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a significant
impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and
Switzerland.
The
war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength towards
their European neighbours. Swiss people from all strata of society,
whether Catholic or Protestant, from the liberal or conservative
current, realised that the cantons would profit more if their economic
and religious interests were merged.
Thus,
while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings, the Swiss drew up
a constitution which provided for a federal layout, much of it inspired
by the American example. This constitution provided central authority
while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues.
Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the
Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper
house (the Council of States, two representatives per canton) and a
lower house (the National Council, with representatives elected from
across the country). Referendums were made mandatory for any amendment
of this constitution.[38] This new constitution also brought a legal end
to nobility in Switzerland.[42]
Inauguration in 1882 of the Gotthard Rail Tunnel connecting the southern canton of Ticino, the longest in the world at the time
A
system of single weights and measures was introduced, and in 1850 the
Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency, complemented by the WIR
franc in 1934.[43] Article 11 of the constitution forbade sending troops
to serve abroad, marking the end of foreign service. It came with the
expectation of serving the Holy See, and the Swiss were still obliged to
serve Francis II of the Two Sicilies with Swiss Guards present at the
Siege of Gaeta in 1860.
An
important clause of the constitution was that it could be entirely
rewritten if necessary, thus enabling it to evolve as a whole rather
than being modified one amendment at a time.[44]
This
need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the Industrial
Revolution that followed led to calls to modify the constitution
accordingly. The population rejected an early draft in 1872, but
modifications led to its acceptance in 1874.[40] It introduced the
facultative referendum for laws at the federal level. It also
established federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal
matters.
In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remain unique today.[40]
Modern history
Main articles: Switzerland during the World Wars and Modern history of Switzerland
General Ulrich Wille, appointed commander-in-chief of the Swiss Army for the duration of World War I
Switzerland
was not invaded during either of the world wars. During World War I,
Switzerland was home to the revolutionary and founder of the Soviet
Union Vladimir Illych Ulyanov (Vladimir Lenin). He remained there until
1917.[45] Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the
Grimm–Hoffmann affair in 1917, but that was short-lived. In 1920,
Switzerland joined the League of Nations, which was based in Geneva, on
condition that it was exempt from any military requirements.
During
World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans,[46]
but Switzerland was never attacked.[40] Switzerland was able to remain
independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to
Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an
invasion.[38][47] Under General Henri Guisan, appointed the
commander-in-chief for the duration of the war, a general mobilisation
of the armed forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed
from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic
heartland to one of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to
strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit.
Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the
conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied
powers.[47]
Switzerland's
trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic
cooperation and extension of credit to Nazi Germany varied according to
the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other
trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link
through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland (together
with Liechtenstein) entirely isolated from the wider world by
Axis-controlled territory. Over the course of the war, Switzerland
interned over 300,000 refugees[48] and the International Red Cross,
based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict
immigration and asylum policies and the financial relationships with
Nazi Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th
century.[49]
During
the war, the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides, shooting
down 11 intruding Luftwaffe planes in May and June 1940, then forcing
down other intruders after a change of policy following threats from
Germany. Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned during
the war, between 1940 and 1945, Switzerland was bombed by the Allies
causing fatalities and property damage.[47] Among the cities and towns
bombed were Basel, Brusio, Chiasso, Cornol, Geneva, Koblenz,
Niederweningen, Rafz, Renens, Samedan, Schaffhausen, Stein am Rhein,
Tägerwilen, Thayngen, Vals, and Zürich. Allied forces explained the
bombings, which violated the 96th Article of War, resulted from
navigation errors, equipment failure, weather conditions, and errors
made by bomber pilots. The Swiss expressed fear and concern that the
bombings were intended to put pressure on Switzerland to end economic
cooperation and neutrality with Nazi Germany.[50] Court-martial
proceedings took place in England and the U.S. Government paid
62,176,433.06 in Swiss francs for reparations of the bombings.
Switzerland's
attitude towards refugees was complicated and controversial; over the
course of the war, it admitted as many as 300,000 refugees[48] while
refusing tens of thousands more,[51] including Jews who were severely
persecuted by the Nazis.
After
the war, the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable
fund known as the Schweizerspende and donated to the Marshall Plan to
help Europe's recovery, efforts that ultimately benefited the Swiss
economy.[52]
During
the Cold War, Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss
nuclear bomb.[53] Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of
Technology Zürich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic
possibility. In 1988, the Paul Scherrer Institute was founded in his
name to explore the therapeutic uses of neutron scattering technologies.
Financial problems with the defence budget and ethical considerations
prevented the substantial funds from being allocated, and the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative. All
remaining plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988.[54]
In
2003, by granting the Swiss People's Party a second seat in the
governing cabinet, the Parliament altered the coalition that had
dominated Swiss politics since 1959.
Switzerland
was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote. Some
Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level, it was
achieved in 1971[40][55] and, after resistance, in the last canton
Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde, along
with Glarus) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level,
women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on
the seven-member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp, who
served from 1984 to 1989,[40] and the first female president being Ruth
Dreifuss in 1999.
Switzerland
joined the Council of Europe in 1963.[38] In 1979 areas from the canton
of Bern attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new canton
of Jura. On 18 April 1999, the Swiss population and the cantons voted in
favour of a completely revised federal constitution.[40]
In
2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving
the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN
membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA but is not a
member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in
the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA
was rejected in December 1992[40] when Switzerland was the only country
to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several
referendums on the EU issue; due to opposition from the citizens, the
membership application has been withdrawn. Nonetheless, Swiss law is
gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU, and the
government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European
Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been surrounded by
the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters
agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that EU
commentators regarded as a sign of support by Switzerland. This country
is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter
supranational bodies.[38] In September 2020, a referendum calling for a
vote on end to the pact that allowed a free movement of people from the
European Union was introduced by the Swiss People's Party (SPP).[56]
However, the voters rejected the attempts of taking back control of
immigration, defeating the motion by a roughly 63%–37% margin.[57]"
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
The critical environmental and sustainability issues of Switzerland:
Air quality
The
level of atmospheric PM2.5 – tiny air pollutant particles small enough
to enter and cause damage to the lungs – is 14.5 micrograms per cubic
meter, higher than the 13.9 micrograms OECD average. Pollution from
respirable particulate matter (PM10), ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxides
(NOX) continues to exceed the legally prescribed ambient limit values.
The scale of ammonia (NH3) pollution also exceeds the critical limit
value.
Water Quality
Half
of the 20 largest Swiss lakes suffer from eutrophication and lack of
oxygen, particularly in areas of intensive farming. Micro-pollutants,
from urban sewage or diffuse agricultural sources detected in surface
waters. Roughly 40% of rivers significantly modified as a result of land
use. River flows altered and artificial barriers hindering fish
movement.
Hydropower
production also altered river flows.Nutrient loads still very high at
10% of monitored river stations, would be higher if more smaller rivers
were monitored.
Levels
of nitrates from fertilisers exceeded the legal limit of 25 milligrams
per litre (mg/l) in 15% of sample areas in 2014. This increased to 40%
in areas where there is a high degree of arable farming.
Healthcare
Society
is ageing, life expectancies are rising, and premature death is less
likely. These trends are expected to continue and become global. The
Federal Statistical Office expects the number of retired people in
Switzerland to increase by 50% by 2045.
The
average age of foreigners living in Switzerland is 36, while that of
Swiss is 44, there is a higher percentage of foreign residents of
working age than of Swiss citizens. Without exceptionally strong
productivity growth or a continuing inflow of young foreign labor, in
the long run, the retirement age or tax revenue and pension
contributions must be raised or the level of benefits reduced.
Besides
an ageing population, the increasing demand for health care services
has made the Swiss healthcare system one of the most expensive. Since
the introduction of compulsory basic health insurance in 1996, health
costs have more than doubled. In the four years from 2010 to 2014, per
capita Swiss health care costs rose 10.2%.
Biodiversity and habitat loss
Half
of Switzerland’s natural habitats and more than a third of its animal
and plant species were under threat – much more than in most European
Union countries. About half of 235 Swiss habitat types are endangered,
with a high proportion of threatened species. Only 6.5% of its land is
set aside as protected area.
Overall
36% of evaluated species have been categorised as threatened. As of the
late 2000s, 79% of reptiles, 62% of amphibians and a third of mammals
are classified as endangered, vulnerable or critically endangered. About
60% of bats are threatened mainly due to pesticides.
The
percentage of threatened habitats and species in bodies of water and
wetlands is particularly high. Most bodies of water and mires in
agricultural areas were drained in the last century, while rivers,
streams and lakes were robbed of their natural dynamic. Around one
fifth of Swiss watercourses are today completely artificial, heavily
damaged or culverted.
Waste generation
Because
of its high standard of living, Switzerland has one of the highest
municipal waste volumes in the world, at 742kg per capita in 2015.
Volume of municipal waste increased by 27% since 2000, in line with
private consumption.
