Morocco History
Think Tanks
HISTORY
Wikipedia.Prehistory
and antiquity
The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since at least
Paleolithic times, beginning sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC.[23]
A recent publication has suggested that there is evidence for even
earlier human habitation of the area: Homo sapiens fossils that had been
discovered in the late 2000s near the Atlantic coast in Jebel Irhoud
were recently dated to roughly 315,000 years ago.[24] During the Upper
Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a
savanna, in contrast to its modern arid landscape.[25] Twenty-two
thousand years ago, the pre-existing Aterian culture was succeeded by
the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian
cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the human
remains found at Iberomaurusian ""Mechta-Afalou"" burial sites and
European Cro-Magnon remains. The Iberomaurusian culture was succeeded by
the Beaker culture in Morocco.
Mitochondrial DNA studies have discovered a close ancestral link between
Berbers and the Saami of Scandinavia. This evidence supports the theory
that some of the peoples who had been living in the Franco-Cantabrian
refuge area of southwestern Europe during the late-glacial period
migrated to northern Europe, contributing to its repopulation after the
last ice age.[26]
In the early part of the Classical Antiquity period, Northwest Africa
and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean
world by the Phoenicians, who established trading colonies and
settlements there, the most substantial of which were Chellah, Lixus,
and Mogador.[27] Mogador was established as a Phoenician colony as early
as the 6th century BC.[28][page needed]
Morocco later became a realm of the Northwest African civilisation of
ancient Carthage, and part of the Carthaginian empire. The earliest
known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania,
under King Baga.[29] This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with the
modern state of Mauritania) flourished
Foundation and early Islamic era
The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, which started in the middle of the
7th century, was achieved by the Umayyad Caliphate early into the
following century. It brought both the Arabic language and Islam to the
area. Although part of the larger Islamic Empire, Morocco was initially
organized as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya, with the local governors
appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan.[30]
The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary
laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim
administration.[31] The first independent Muslim state in the area of
modern Morocco was the Kingdom of Nekor, an emirate in the Rif
Mountains. It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client
state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt
in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa
of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata.
According to medieval legend, Idris ibn Abdallah had fled to Morocco
after the Abbasids' massacre of his tribe in Iraq. He convinced the
Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid
caliphs in Baghdad and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The
Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of
Muslim learning and a major regional power. The Idrissids were ousted
in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa
broke off relations with the Fatimids in 932, they were removed from
power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980.
Dynasties
From the 11th century onwards, a series of Berber dynasties
arose.[32][33][34] Under the Sanhaja Almoravid dynasty and the Masmuda
Almohad dynasty,[35] Morocco dominated the Maghreb, al-Andalus in
Iberia, and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century
onwards the country saw a massive migration of the Banu Hilal Arab
tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Merinids held power in
Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through
military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the
Wattasids. In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in
Iberia and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco.[36]
Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century
did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed
to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing
further afield inland.
Early modern period
The Portuguese Empire was founded when Prince Henry the Navigator led
the Conquest of Ceuta, which began the Portuguese presence in Morocco,
lasting from 1415 to 1769.
In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent
from the Islamic prophet, Muhammad: first the Saadi dynasty who ruled
from 1549 to 1659, and then the Alaouite dynasty, who remain in power
since the 17th century.
The remains of the Saadi Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur's 16th century Badii'
Palace.
Under the Saadi dynasty, the country ended the Aviz dynasty of Portugal
at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578. The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur
brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition
to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empire in
1591. However, managing the territories across the Sahara proved too
difficult. After the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among
his sons.
In 1631, Morocco was reunited by the Alaouite dynasty, who have been the
ruling house of Morocco ever since. Morocco was facing aggression from
Spain and the Ottoman Empire allies pressing westward. The Alaouites
succeeded in stabilising their position, and while the kingdom was
smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy.
Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727)
began to create a unified state.[37] With his Jaysh d'Ahl al-Rif (the
Riffian Army) he re-occupied Tangier from the English who had abandoned
it in 1684 and drove the Spanish from Larache in 1689. Portuguese
abandoned Mazagão, their last territory in Morocco, in 1769. However,
the Siege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775.
Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as
an independent nation in 1777.[38][39][40] In the beginning of the
American Revolution, American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were
subject to attack by the Barbary pirates. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's
Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be
under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage.
The Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, signed in 1786, stands as
the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty.[41][42]
French and Spanish protectorates: 1912 to 1956
Main articles: French protectorate in Morocco and Spanish Protectorate
in Morocco
The Treaty of Wad Ras after the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860)
bankrupted Morocco's national treasury, forcing the Makhzen to take on a
British loan.[43]
As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for
its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in
Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian
territory, but also because of the strategic position of Morocco with
coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic.[44] In 1860, a
dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious
Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In
1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco.
Tangier's population in 1873 included 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Europeans
and 15,000 Jews.[45]
In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco.
Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence
provoked a strong reaction from the German Empire; and a crisis loomed
in 1905. The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906.
The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers.
The 1912 Treaty of Fez made Morocco a protectorate of France, and
triggered the 1912 Fez riots.[46] Spain continued to operate its coastal
protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting
power over the northern and southern Saharan zones.[47]
Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large
amounts of rich agricultural land, while others organised the
exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups
that formed among these elements continually pressured France to
increase its control over Morocco – a control which was also made
necessary by the continuous wars among Moroccan tribes, part of which
had taken sides with the French since the beginning of the conquest.
Governor general Marshall Hubert Lyautey sincerely admired Moroccan
culture and succeeded in imposing a joint Moroccan-French
administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions
of Moroccan soldiers (Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served
in the French army in both World War I and World War II, and in the
Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after
(Regulares).[48] The institution of slavery was abolished in 1925.[49]
Between 1921 and 1926, a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by
Abd el-Krim, led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif. The
Spanish lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August
1921.[50] The rebellion was eventually suppressed by French and Spanish
troops.
In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press
for independence, with discreet US support. That party subsequently
provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.
France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his
replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active
opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable
violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other
European residents in the streets. France allowed Mohammed V to return
in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began
the following year.[51] In March 1956 the French protectorate was ended
and Morocco regained its independence from France as the ""Kingdom of
Morocco"". A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern
Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves (Ceuta and
Melilla) on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests.
Sultan Mohammed became king in 1957.
Post-independence
The Proclamation of Independence of Morocco of 1944.
The Mausoleum of Mohammed V, a modern Alaouite landmark in Rabat.
Upon the death of Mohammed V, Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3
March 1961. Morocco held its first general elections in 1963. However,
Hassan declared a state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965.
In 1971, there was a failed attempt to depose the king and establish a
republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights
abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from
death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed
during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission.
The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in
1969. The Polisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of
establishing an independent state in the Spanish Sahara. On 6 November
1975, King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara.
Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the ""Green
March"".[52] A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara,
soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint
Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of
military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied the
territory.[36]
Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara. Morocco and
Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan
military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged
war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan
cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis.
In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at
the SADR's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more
than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985.
Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in
Algeria to be 165,000.[53] Diplomatic relations with Algeria were
restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western
Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire
violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over a
proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was
not broken.
Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a
bicameral legislature in 1997 and Morocco's first opposition-led
government came to power in 1998.
Protestors in Casablanca demand that authorities honor their promises of
political reform.
King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI.
He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social
liberalisation.[54]
Mohammed VI paid a controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002.
Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United
Nations in 2007. The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own
proposal. Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in
New York City but failed to come to any agreement. In 2010, security
forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent
demonstrations in the regional capital El Aaiún.
In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the
disputed island of Perejil. Spanish troops had taken the normally
uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents
and a flag. There were renewed tensions in 2005, as hundreds of African
migrants tried to storm the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla
and Ceuta. Morocco deported hundreds of the illegal migrants. In 2006,
the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first
Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories.
The following year, Spanish King Juan Carlos I visited Ceuta and
Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the
enclaves.
During the 2011–2012 Moroccan protests, thousands of people rallied in
Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new
constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a
landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had
proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. Despite the reforms made
by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms.
Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012.
Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms.
ENVIRONMENTAL
Data THE GOVERNMENT Morocco
Strategies-et-programmes
Strategies and Programs
Morocco has adopted in its development strategy the concept of
sustainable development that promotes the balance between the
environmental, economic and social dimensions, with the objectives of
improving the living environment of citizens, strengthening the
sustainable management of natural resources and promoting economic
activities that respect the environment.
In accordance with its commitments at the international level within the
framework of the Earth Summits in Rio de Janeiro (1992) and
Johannesburg (2002) and the relevant conventions, Morocco has laid the
foundations for achieving sustainable development in the country through
several political, institutional, legal and socio-economic reforms.This
process was reinforced by the adoption of the National Charter for the
Environment and Sustainable Development, the elaboration of which was
launched following the directives of His Majesty King Mohamed VI, during
his Speech from the Throne of 30 July 2009.
The concretization of this process has resulted in the process of
integrating the principles of sustainable development into sectoral
strategies, the implementation of the Environmental Upgrading Strategy
(MANE) and the National Initiative for Human Development (INDH)
Moroccan flora
The Moroccan flora has about 7000 known species. Vascular flora is
massively represented in forest ecosystems where nearly two-thirds of
species live; the remaining third is divided mainly between steppe
formations and wet biotopes. The mountainous regions of the Rif and
Atlas are the most important sectors in terms of endemism.
The argan tree
Moroccan forest formations, like Mediterranean forests, are composed of
very heterogeneous species, often clear and with very diverse
structures.
Moroccan flora
These formations are mostly state-owned and extend over an area of about
9,038,000 ha, or 12.7% of the national territory. Moroccan forests are
made up of natural deciduous forests (Holm Oak, Cork Oak, Tauzin Oak,
Argan Tree, Carob Tree, Acacias, ...) and coniferous (Atlas Cedar,
Berberian Cedar, Aleppo Pine, Maritime Pine, Black Pine, Thurifer
juniper, Red Juniper, ...), distributed between the different
bioclimatic floors from semi-arid to humid.
cedar
La Cédraie occupies the mountain areas in the Middle Atlas and the Rif,
Les Chênaies occupy the plains and mountain foothills, while the only
Sapinière in Morocco finds refuge in Talasemtane in the altitudes of the
Western Rif near Chefchaouen. To the southwest, the Arganeraie occupies
semi-arid and arid areas of the Western High Atlas and the Anti-Atlas.
Further south, Acacias are pre-steppe and pre-forest climaxes in areas
with arid and Saharan bioclimates.
