Japan History
Think Tanks
HISTORY
Wikipedia.Legendary Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇, Jinmu-tennō)
A
Paleolithic culture from around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known
habitation of the islands of Japan.[16] This was followed from around
14,500 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic
semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture characterized by pit dwelling and
rudimentary agriculture.[17] Clay vessels from the period are among the
oldest surviving examples of pottery.[18] From around 1000 BC, Yayoi
people began to enter the archipelago from Kyushu, intermingling with
the Jōmon;[19] the Yayoi period saw the introduction of practices
including wet-rice farming,[20] a new style of pottery,[21] and
metallurgy from China and Korea.[22] According to legend, Emperor Jimmu
(grandson of Amaterasu) founded a kingdom in central Japan in 660 BC,
beginning a continuous imperial line.[23]
Japan
first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han, completed
in 111 AD. Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Baekje (a Korean
kingdom) in 552, but the development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily
influenced by China.[24] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted
by the ruling class, including figures like Prince Shōtoku, and gained
widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710).[25]
The
far-reaching Taika Reforms in 645 nationalized all land in Japan, to be
distributed equally among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a
household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation.[26] The
Jinshin War of 672, a bloody conflict between Prince Ōama and his nephew
Prince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative
reforms.[27] These reforms culminated with the promulgation of the Taihō
Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the
structure of the central and subordinate local governments.[26] These
legal reforms created the ritsuryō state, a system of Chinese-style
centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium.[27]
The
Nara period (710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered
on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The period is
characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture with the
completion of the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), as well as the
development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture.[28][29] A
smallpox epidemic in 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as
one-third of Japan's population.[29][30] In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the
capital, settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in 794.[29] This
marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a
distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged. Murasaki Shikibu's The
Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem ""Kimigayo""
were written during this time.[31]
Feudal era
Samurai warriors battling Mongols during the Mongol invasions of Japan, depicted in the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba
Japan's
feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling
class of warriors, the samurai.[32] In 1185, following the defeat of
the Taira clan in the Genpei War, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo
established a military government at Kamakura.[33] After Yoritomo's
death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shōgun.[29] The
Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period
(1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.[34] The Kamakura
shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 but was eventually
overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo.[29] Go-Daigo was defeated by Ashikaga
Takauji in 1336, beginning the Muromachi period (1336–1573).[35] The
succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords
(daimyō) and a civil war began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku
period (""Warring States"").[36]
During
the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries reached
Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural
exchange between Japan and the West.[29][37] Oda Nobunaga used European
technology and firearms to conquer many other daimyō;[38] his
consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama
period.[39] After the death of Nobunaga in 1582, his successor Toyotomi
Hideyoshi unified the nation in the early 1590s and launched two
unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.[29]
Tokugawa
Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used
his position to gain political and military support.[40] When open war
broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in
1600. He was appointed shōgun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 and
established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).[41] The
shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct
to control the autonomous daimyō,[42] and in 1639 the isolationist
sakoku (""closed country"") policy that spanned the two and a half
centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period
(1603–1868).[41][43] Modern Japan's economic growth began in this
period, resulting in roads and water transportation routes, as well as
financial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and insurance
of the Osaka rice brokers.[44] The study of Western sciences (rangaku)
continued through contact with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki.[41] The
Edo period gave rise to kokugaku (""national studies""), the study of
Japan by the Japanese.[45]
Modern era
Emperor Meiji (明治天皇, Meiji-tennō); 1852–1912)
In
1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the ""Black Ships"" of the United
States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the
Convention of Kanagawa.[41] Subsequent similar treaties with other
Western countries brought economic and political crises.[41] The
resignation of the shōgun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of
a centralized state nominally unified under the emperor (the Meiji
Restoration).[46] Adopting Western political, judicial, and military
institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the
Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet.[47] During the
Meiji period (1868–1912), the Empire of Japan emerged as the most
developed nation in Asia and as an industrialized world power that
pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence.[48][49][50]
After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea
and the southern half of Sakhalin.[51][47] The Japanese population
doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a
significant shift to urbanization.[52][53]
The
early 20th century saw a period of Taishō democracy (1912–1926)
overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization.[54][55]
World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious
Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China.[55]
The 1920s saw a political shift towards statism, a period of lawlessness
following the 1923 Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing of laws against
political dissent, and a series of attempted coups.[53][56][57] This
process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning a number of radical
nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a
dedication to expansion in Asia. In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied
Manchuria; following international condemnation of the occupation, it
resigned from the League of Nations two years later.[58] In 1936, Japan
signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany; the 1940 Tripartite
Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.[53]
Japan's imperial ambitions ended on September 2, 1945, with the country's surrender to the Allies.
The
Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945).[59] In 1940, the Empire invaded
French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on
Japan.[53][60] On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out
surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces in
Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among others, beginning World War II
in the Pacific.[61] Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war,
numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many
forced into sexual slavery.[62] After Allied victories during the next
four years, which culminated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the
atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an
unconditional surrender.[63] The war cost Japan its colonies and
millions of lives.[53] The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated
millions of Japanese settlers from their former colonies and military
camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese empire and its
influence over the territories it conquered.[64][65] The Allies convened
the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to prosecute
Japanese leaders for war crimes.[65]
In
1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic
practices.[65] The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San
Francisco in 1952,[66] and Japan was granted membership in the United
Nations in 1956.[65] A period of record growth propelled Japan to become
the second-largest economy in the world;[65] this ended in the
mid-1990s after the popping of an asset price bubble, beginning the
""Lost Decade"".[67] On March 11, 2011, Japan suffered one of the
largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear disaster.[68] On May 1, 2019, after the historic
abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor,
beginning the Reiwa era.[69]"
ENVIRONMENTAL
The official Publications the Government of Japan
The 15th Japan-China Energy Conservation and Environment Forum Held (Summary of the Results)
December 27, 2021
1. Summarized results of the forum
The
15th Japan-China Energy Conservation and Environment Forum was held on
December 26 (Sun.), 2021. Due to the impact of COVID-19, it was held
online this year, the same as last year. The event was attended by some
700 stakeholders from both the public and private sectors, including:
Minister Hagiuda, Mr. Yamaguchi Tsuyoshi (Minister of the Environment),
and Mr. Muneoka Shoji (Chairman of the Japan-China Economic
Association), and other officials as representatives of Japan; and
Chairman He Lifeng of the NDRC, H.E. Mr. Ren Hongbin (Vice Minister of
Commerce), H.E. Mr. Kong Xuanyou (Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary of the People’s Republic of China), and other officials
as representatives of China.
Memorandums
for establishment of 11 new cooperation projects were exchanged at the
forum (see the Appendix). With these exchanges, the number of such
projects has come to 413 since the inauguration of the forum in 2006.
At
the plenary session, Minister Hagiuda stated that this forum should
focus on ""diverse paths to becoming carbon neutral and Japan-China
cooperation"" and explained Japan's efforts toward carbon neutrality. At
the same time, he expressed the importance of Japan-China cooperation
toward solving common issues, such as facilitation of smooth energy
transition. He also presented the concrete progress of Japan-China
cooperation in the fields of hydrogen and energy conservation, and
expressed his hope for further expansion.
Furthermore,
the forum provided four sessions titled improvement of energy
efficiency (energy conservation),introduction of electrified and
smarter vehicles, hydrogen and clean electricity, and Japan-China long-term trading (water environment management and sludge
disposal), and representatives of the public sectors, major companies
and other organizations from Japan and China exchanged views at the
sessions.
The Prime Minister in Action
Global Warming Prevention Headquarters
September 3, 2021
On
September 3, 2021, the Prime Minister held the 47th meeting of the
Global Warming Prevention Headquarters at the Prime Minister’s Office.
At
the meeting, the participants engaged in discussions on the draft Plan
for Global Warming Countermeasures and the draft Long-Term Strategy
under the Paris Agreement and other matters.
Following the discussion, the Prime Minister said,
“Today,
we compiled government drafts of our Plan for Global Warming
Countermeasures and our Long-Term Strategy under the Paris Agreement,
among others.
As
shown in torrential rains, record heat waves, and other weather events,
climate change has become a global issue. Facing this squarely and
regarding global warming countermeasures as what will serve as a
catalyst for new investments and innovation, rather than restrictions on
economic activities – with this mindset, we decided on the goal of
net-zero emissions by 2050. In addition, we made the decision to seek a
46 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by fiscal year 2030 and
continue to strive in the challenge to aim at the goal of cutting
emissions by 50 percent.
Concrete
measures to realize these goals and our course of action have been
compiled in our Plan for Global Warming Countermeasures and our
long-term strategy.
The
first is the principle of giving the highest priority to renewable
energy. We will accelerate the adoption of renewable energy by
designating promotion zones across the country, among other measures.
The
second is thorough energy saving. For instance, we will expand the
scope of housing and other buildings that are required to meet
energy-saving standards.
The
third is decarbonization of local communities and transformation of
lifestyles. We will discover preceding examples in local communities to
encourage positive action toward decarbonization in food, clothing, and
housing as well as transportation.
From
now, we will work to have the Government take a decision in the autumn,
after hearing the views of members of the public. The COP26 (26th
session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change) will convene from the end of October. We
will demonstrate Japan’s concrete actions to the world, and we will
involve emerging powers as we lead the world toward decarbonization and
sustainable growth.
